Every dyslexia evaluation takes patience and skill. That’s especially true when the person you’re assessing is still learning how to speak, read, and write in English. How do you know whether an apparent difficulty is related to learning a new language, having a language condition, or having a learning disability? The complexity can lead to over- or under-identification of dyslexia in multilingual learners. 

Here's a short list of questions you can explore, followed by evidence-based guidance, to make the assessment process clearer and more accurate:

1. What is the student’s family reading history?  

Dyslexia has a strong genetic link, so it’s important to find out whether anyone in the student’s immediate family has a similar history in academics or reading. It may be helpful to work with an interpreter if family members are also English learners.

2. How much quality instruction has this student received in each language? 

To be sure that any difficulties aren’t owing to a lack of exposure, you’ll need to find out as much as possible about the instruction received in the first language (L1) as well as the second (L2). If a student had trouble learning to read in L1, too, a dyslexia evaluation may be warranted—even if the nature of the difficulties is different between languages.

3. How do sounds map to letters in the student’s primary language?  

In some languages, certain sounds reliably map to certain letters. That’s known as a transparent language or shallow orthography. English orthography is considered deep or opaque because some letters can have multiple sounds. If a student has trouble learning to read a language with a shallow orthography, it may be more indicative of a learning disability.

4. How do the student’s reading skills compare to peers with similar backgrounds?

To explore whether a student’s difficulties might be something other than language learning, you may want to look at how other students with similar language histories perform. Of course, reading abilities are highly individual—but if a student is progressing at a rate that’s different from others who were introduced to English at roughly the same time, and who speak the same primary language, it may be time for a closer look.

5. What does the pattern of errors look like?

It can be helpful to know what kinds of errors are common among ELs who speak different languages. If certain sounds and spellings are usually difficult for people with a certain L1 to master, those errors may be related to language learning rather than dyslexia.

6. What is the most appropriate assessment, given the needs of this student?  

As you’re deciding whether a particular reading or dyslexia test is appropriate for your student, look carefully at these traits:

• Does the normative sample include people with similar backgrounds? 
• Is the test available in the student’s primary language? 
• Do any test items show cultural or linguistic bias? 
• Would any accommodation or modification you’re considering affect test validity?

If you’re using a test published by WPS, our Assessment Consultants can help you select the best option for your student. We can also help you understand how to administer it for the most accurate results. 

7. What are the student’s language abilities like?

Children with dyslexia often have a history of language delays in early childhood—and both receptive and expressive language difficulties can be lasting (Price et al., 2022). For a complete picture of a child’s abilities and needs, assessing language is a key part of a dyslexia evaluation.

8. How well-developed is the student’s phonological awareness?  

Research indicates that phonological awareness is problematic for students with dyslexia—whether they have learned one language or more than one. In one study, Italian researchers found that children with reading difficulties didn’t perform as well on phonological awareness tasks as good readers—no matter how much exposure to Italian (L2) they had (Taha et al., 2022).

9. How well does the student read words?

Dyslexia can affect all aspects of reading, whether a student is naming individual letters or trying to comprehend a complex text. Even so, trouble with word reading is consistently associated with dyslexia risk in multilingual learners. In one study involving ELs in 3rd grade, researchers concluded, “Our results revealed that the differences between ELs with typical reading skills and reading difficulties were most apparent, based on effect size differences, on measures of word reading” (Miciak et al., 2022).

10. Who should be on this student’s evaluation team? 

Because so many factors are involved, it’s especially important to hear from parents, caregivers, teachers, SLPs, school psychologists, and other professionals—especially those with expertise in the student’s language and culture. Relying on a standardized assessment alone isn’t likely to give you the most accurate “read” on the student’s abilities. What you learn from an assessment needs context.

Key Messages

When students are learning a second language, their ability to read and write in that language can sometimes look like a reading disability. To understand whether these difficulties are evidence of dyslexia—or are the natural progression of language learning—takes a careful and collaborative assessment approach. 

Knowing about someone’s background and educational exposure is key. Choosing the right tests and understanding how to interpret them is also vital. Looking at performance over time, using a variety of artifacts, and hearing from a wide range of experts can also lead to a more accurate diagnosis.  

Learn more: 

• The WPS Guide to Dyslexia Assessment 
• Dyslexia Assessment Tool Kit 
• Video: Challenges of Dyslexia Assessment with Nancy Mather, PhD 

Research and Resources: 

Cleave, E. (2020). Language, education and social justice: International strategies for systems change in multilingual schools. https://www.bell-foundation.org.uk/app/uploads/2020/06/Churchill-Report-2020-FV-web.pdf

Huckle, J. (2022, May 9). Equity and English as an additional language: Looking beyond deficit and asset lenses. Impact. https://my.chartered.college/impact_article/equity-and-english-as-an-additional-language-looking-beyond-deficit-and-asset-lenses/ 

International Dyslexia Association. (n.d.). English learners and dyslexia.  https://dyslexiaida.org/english-learners-and-dyslexia/

Mather, N., & Wendling, B. J. (2012). Essentials of Dyslexia Assessment and Intervention. John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Miciak, J., Ahmed, Y., Capin, P., & Francis, D. J. (2022). The reading profiles of late elementary English learners with and without risk for dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 72(2), 276–300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-022-00254-4

Price, K. M., Wigg, K. G., Misener, V. L., Clarke, A., Yeung, N., Blokland, K., Wilkinson, M., Kerr, E. N., Guger, S. L., Lovett, M. W., & Barr, C. L. (2022). Language difficulties in school-age children with developmental dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 55(3), 200–212. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194211006207 

Taha, J., Carioti, D., Stucchi, N., Chailleux, M., Granocchio, E., Sarti, D., De Salvatore, M., & Guasti, M. T. (2022). Identifying the risk of dyslexia in bilingual children: The potential of language-dependent and language-independent tasks. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 935935. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.935935